diff --git a/chapter_2/exercises.md b/chapter_2/exercises.md index 237a9bc..3292441 100644 --- a/chapter_2/exercises.md +++ b/chapter_2/exercises.md @@ -757,3 +757,274 @@ $$ p \wedge (\neg q \vee q) \equiv p \text{ by distributive law for } \wedge $$ $$ p \wedge \mathbf{t} \equiv p \text{ by negation law for } \vee $$ $$ p \equiv p \text{ by identity law for } \wedge $$ + +--- + +**Exercise Set 2.2** + +Page 86 + +Rewrite the statements in 1-4 in if-then form. + +1. This loop will repeat exactly $n$ times if it does not contain a **stop** or + a **go to**. + +2. I am on time for work if I catch the 8:05 bus. + +3. Freeze or I'll shoot. + +4. Fix my ceiling or I won't pay my rent. + +Construct truth tables for the statements forms in 5-11. + +5. $\neg p \vee q \to \neg q$ + +6. $(p \vee q) \vee (\neg p \wedge q) \to q$ + +7. $p \wedge \neg q \to r$ + +8. $\neg p \vee q \to r$ + +9. $p \wedge \neg r \leftrightarrow q \vee r$ + +10. $(p \to r) \leftrightarrow (q \to r)$ + +11. $(p \to (q \to r)) \leftrightarrow ((p \wedge q) \to r)$ + +12. Use the logical equivalence established in Example 2.2.3, + $p \vee q \to r \equiv (p \to r) \wedge (q \to r)$, to rewrite the following + statement. (Assume that $x$ represents a fixed real number.) + +If $x > 2 $ or $x < -2$, then $x^2 > 4$. + +13. Use truth tables to verify the following logical equivalences. Include a few + words of explanation with your answers. + +a. $p \to q \equiv \neg p \vee q$ + +b. $\neg(p \to q) \equiv p \wedge \neg q$ + +14. + +a. Show that the following statement forms are all logically equivalent: + +$p \to q \vee r$, $p \wedge \neg q \to r$, and $p \wedge \neg r \to q$ + +b. Use the logical equivalences established in part (a) to rewrite the following +sentence in two different ways. (Assume that $n$ represents a fixed integer.) + +If $n$ is prime, then $n$ is odd or $n$ is $2$. + +15. Determine whether the following statement forms are logically equivalent: + +$p \to (q \to r)$ and $(p \to q) \to r$ + +In 16 and 17, write each of the two statements in symbolic form and determine +whether they are logically equivalent. Include a truth table and a few words of +explanation to show that you understand what it means for statements to be +logically equivalent. + +16. If you paid full price, you didn't buy it at Crown Books. You didn't buy it + at Crown Books or you paid full price. + +17. If $2$ is a factor of $n$ and $3$ is a factor of $n$, then $6$ is a factor + of $n$. $2$ is not a factor of $n$ or $3$ is not a factor of $n$ or $6$ is a + factor of $n$. + +18. Write each of the following three statements in symbolic form and determine + which pairs are logically equivalent. Include truth tables and a few words + of explanation. + +If it walks like a duck and it talks like a duck, then it is a duck. + +Either it does not walk like a duck or it does not talk like a duck, or it is a +duck. + +If it does not walk like a duck and it does not talk like a duck, then it is not +a duck. + +19. True or false? The negation of "If Sue is Luiz's mother, then Ali is his + cousin" is "If Sue is Luiz's mother, then Ali is not his cousin." + +20. Write negations for each of the following statements. (Assume that all + variables represent fixed quantities or entities, as appropriate.) + +a. If $P$ is a square, then $P$ is a rectangle. + +b. If today is New Year's Eve, then tomorrow is January. + +c. If the decimal expansion of $r$ is terminating, then $r$ is rational. + +d. If $n$ is prime, then $n$ is odd or $n$ is $2$. + +e. If $x$ is nonnegative, then $x$ is positive or $x$ is $0$. + +f. If Tom is Ann's father, then Jim is her uncle and Sue is her aunt. + +g. If $n$ is divisible by $6$, then $n$ is divisible by $2$ and $n$ is divisible +by $3$. + +21. Suppose that $p$ and $q$ are statements so that $p \to q$ is false. Find the + truth values of each of the following. + +a. $\neg p \to q$ + +b. $p \vee q$ + +c. $q \to p$ + +22. Write contrapositives for the statements of exercise 20. + +23. Write the converse and inverse for each statement of exercise 20. + +Use truth tables to establish the truth of each statement in 24-27. + +24. A conditional statement is not logically equivalent to its converse. + +25. A conditional statement is not logically equivalent to its inverse. + +26. A conditional statement and its contrapositive are logically equivalent to + each other. + +27. The converse and inverse of a conditional statement are logically equivalent + to each other. + +28. "Do you mean that you think you can find out the answer to it?" said the + March Hare. + +"Exactly so," said Alice. + +"Then you should say what you mean," the March Hare went on. + +"I do," Alice hastily replied; "at least-at least I mean what I say-that's the +same thing, you know." + +"Not the same thing a bit!" said the Hatter. + +"Why, you might just as well say that 'I see what I eat' is the same thing as 'I +eat what I see'!" + +-from "A Mad Tea-Party" in _Alice in Wonderland_, by Lewis Carroll + +The Hatter is right. "I say what I mean" is not the same thing as "I mean what I +say." Rewrite each of these two sentences in if-then form and explain the +logical relation between them. (This exercise is referred to in the introduction +to Chapter 4.) + +If statement forms $P$ and $Q$ are logically equivalent, then +$P \leftrightarrow Q$ is a tautology. Conversely, if $P \leftrightarrow Q$ is a +tautology, then $P$ and $Q$ are logically equivalent. Use $\leftrightarrow$ to +convert each of the logical equivalences in 29-31 to a tautology. Then use a +truth table to verify each tautology. + +29. $p \to (q \vee r) \equiv (p \wedge \neg q) \to r$ + +30. $p \wedge (q \vee r) \equiv (p \wedge q) \vee (p \wedge r)$ + +31. $p \to (q \to r) \equiv (p \wedge q) \to r$ + +Rewrite each of the statements in 32 and 33 as a conjunction of two if-then +statements. + +32. This quadratic equation has two distinct real roots if, and only if, its + discriminant is greater than zero. + +33. This integer is even if, and only if, it equals twice some integer. + +Rewrite the statements in 34 and 35 in if-then form in two ways, one of which is +the contrapositive of the other. Use the formal definition of "only if." + +34. The Cubs will win the pennant only if they win tomorrow's game. + +35. Sam will be allowed on Signe's racing boat only if he is an expert sailor. + +36. Taking the long view on your education, you go to the Prestige Corporation + and ask what you should do in college to be hired when you graduate. The + personnel director replies that you will be hired _only if_ you major in + mathematics or computer science, get a B average or better, and take + accounting. You do, in fact, become a math major, get a B+ average, and take + accounting. You return to Prestige Corporation, make a formal application, + and are turned down. Did the personnel director lie to you? + +Some programming languages use statements of the form "$r$ unless $s$" to mean +that as long as $s$ does not happen, then $r$ will happen. More formally: + +**Definition:** + +If $r$ and $s$ are statements, + +**$r$ unless $s$** means if $\neg s$ then $r$. + +In 37-39 rewrite the statements in if-then form. + +37. Payment will be made on fifth unless a new hearing is granted. + +38. Ann will go unless it rains. + +39. This door will not open unless a security code is entered. + +Rewrite the statements in 40 and 41 in if-then form. + +40. Catching the 8:05 bus is a sufficient condition for my being on time for + work. + +41. Having two $45\degree$ angles is a sufficient condition for this triangle to + be a right triangle. + +Use the contrapositive to rewrite the statements in 42 and 43 in if-then form in +two ways. + +42. Being divisible by $3$ is a necessary condition for this number to be + divisible by $9$. + +43. Doing homework regularly is a necessary condition for Jim to pass the + course. + +Note that "a sufficient condition for $s$ is $r$" means $r$ is a sufficient +condition for $s$ and that "a necessary condition for $s$ is $r$" means $r$ is a +necessary condition for $s$. Rewrite the statements in 44 and 45 in if-then +form. + +44. A sufficient condition for Jon's team to win the championship is that it win + the rest of its games. + +45. A necessary condition for this computer program to be correct is that it not + produce error messages during translation. + +46. "If compound X is boiling, then its temperature must be at least + $150\degree$C." Assuming that this statement is true, which of the following + must also be true? + +a. If the temperature of compound X is at least $150\degree$C, then compound X +is boiling. + +b. IF the temperature of compound X is less than $150\degree$C, then compound X +is not boiling. + +c. Compound X will boil only if its temperature is at least $150\degree$C. + +d. If compound X is not boiling, then its temperature is less than +$150\degree$C. + +e. A necessary condition for compound X to boil is that its temperature be at +least $150\degree$C. + +f. A sufficient condition for compound X to boil is that its temperature be at +least $150\degree$C. + +In 47-50(a) use the logical equivalences $p \to q \equiv \neg p \vee q$ and +$p \leftrightarrow q \equiv (\neg p \vee q) \weddge (\neg q \vee p)$ to rewrite +the given statement forms without using the symbol $\to$ or $\leftrightarrow$, +and (b) use the logical equivalence $p \vee q \equiv \neg(\neg p \wedge \neg q)$ +to rewrite each statement form using only $\wedge$ and $\neg$. + +47. $p \wedge \neg q \to r$ + +48. $p \vee \neg q \to r \vee q$ + +49. $(p \to r) \leftrightarrow (q \to r)$ + +50. $(p \to (q \to r)) \leftrightarrow ((p \wedge q) \to r)$ + +51. Given any statement form, is it possible to find a logically equivalent form + that uses only $\neg$ and $\wedge$? Justify your answer. diff --git a/chapter_2/notes.md b/chapter_2/notes.md index a151d5f..6c17fdf 100644 --- a/chapter_2/notes.md +++ b/chapter_2/notes.md @@ -164,3 +164,88 @@ $$ p \wedge (p \vee q) \equiv p $$ $$ \neg \mathbf{t} \equiv \mathbf{c} $$ $$ \neg \mathbf{c} \equiv \mathbf{t} $$ + +--- + +Page 77 + +**Definition** + +If $p$ and $q$ are statement variables, the **conditional** of $q$ by $p$ is "If +$p$ then $q$" or "$p$ implies $q$" and is denoted $p \to q$. It is false when +$p$ is true and $q$ is false; otherwise it is true. We call $p$ the +**hypothesis** (or **antecedent**) if the conditional and $q$ the **conclusion** +(or **consequent**). + +--- + +Page 80 + +**Definition** + +The **contrapositive** of a conditional statement of the form "If $p$ then $q" +is + +$$ \text{If } \neg q \text{ then } \neg p $$ + +Symbolically, + +The contrapositive of $p \to q$ is $\neg q \to \neg p$. + +--- + +Page 81 + +**Definition** + +Suppose a conditional statement of the form "If $p$ then $q$" is given. + +1. The **converse** is "If $q$ then $p$." + +2. The **inverse** is "If $\neg p$ then $\neg q$." + +Symbolically, + +The converse of $p \to q$ is $q \to p$, + +and + +The inverse of $p \to q$ is $\neg p \to \neg q$. + +--- + +Page 82 + +**Definition** + +If $p$ and $q$ are statements, + +$p$ **only if** $q$ means "if not $q$, then not $p$," + +or, equivalently, + +"if $p$ then $q$." + +--- + +Page 83 + +**Definition** + +Given statement variables $p$ and $q$, the **biconditional of $p$ and $q$** is +"$p$ if, and only if, $q$", and is denoted $p \leftrightarrow q$. It is true if +both $p$ and $q$ have the same truth values and is false if $p$ and $q$ have +opposite truth values. The words _if and only if_ are sometimes abbreviated +**iff**. + +--- + +Page 84 + +**Definition** + +If $r$ and $s$ are statements: + +$r$ is a **sufficient condition** for $s$ means "if $r$ then $s$." + +$r$ is a **necessarily condition** for $s$ means "if not $r$, then not $s$." diff --git a/chapter_2/test_yourself.md b/chapter_2/test_yourself.md index 8656012..8aebd2c 100644 --- a/chapter_2/test_yourself.md +++ b/chapter_2/test_yourself.md @@ -41,3 +41,78 @@ true **Solution** false + +--- + +**Test Yourself** + +Page 86 + +1. An _if-then_ statement is false if, and only if, the hypothesis is _______ + and the conclusion is _______. + +**Solution** + +true; false + +2. The negation of "if $p$ then $q$" is _______. + +**Solution** + +$p$ and not $q$. + +$$ p \wedge \neg q $$ + +3. The converse of "if $p$ then $q$" is _______. + +**Solution** + +if $q$ then $p$ + +$$ q \to p $$ + +4. The contrapositive of "if $p$ then $q$" is _______. + +**Solution** + +if not $q$ then not $p$. + +$$ \neg q \to \neg p $$ + +5. The inverse of "if $p$ then $q$" is _______. + +**Solution** + +if not $p$ then not $q$. + +$$ \neg p \to \neg q $$ + +6. A conditional statement and its contrapositive are _______. + +**Solution** + +logically equivalent. + +7. A conditional statement and its converse are not _______. + +**Solution** + +logically equivalent. + +8. "$R$ is a sufficient condition for $S$" means "if _______ then _______." + +**Solution** + +$R$; $S$. + +9. "$R$ is a necessary condition for $S$" means "if _______ then _______." + +**Solution** + +$S$; $R$ + +10. "$R$ only if $S$" means "if _______ then _______." + +**Solution** + +$R$; $S$ diff --git a/leftoff.txt b/leftoff.txt index dd47563..8cf5c1a 100644 --- a/leftoff.txt +++ b/leftoff.txt @@ -1 +1 @@ -76 +86